HERDSA 1996: Anderson and Boud - role of peer learning in university courses

Extending the role of peer learning in university courses

Geoff Anderson and David Boud
School of Adult Education
University of Technology, Sydney

Peer teaching and learning has a long tradition in higher education and offers many benefits to participants. Yet too often narrow conceptions of this approach have meant these benefits are not fully realised. Learning informally from one's peers is probably inseparable from the experience of studying at a university. Informal peer learning occurs as students help each other to make sense of texts, lectures, subject material, assignments and indeed of the whole experience of being a student. The great advantage of peer learning is that it offers the opportunity for students to teach and learn from each other, providing a learning experience that is qualitatively different from the usual teacher-student interactions and which offers mutual benefits (Saunders, 1992).
The most common formal use of peer teaching and learning within courses involves some kind of surrogate teaching. In such approaches learning is essentially one-way, content being communicated from the tutor to the learner. However peer teaching is not simply about transmission from the more capable to the less capable but also about people with equivalent skills and experience learning from each other and indeed about the tutor learning from the tutees (Griffiths, Houston & Lazenbatt, 1995). It is mutual or complementary learning which, if properly managed, holds much potential for extending the range of learning activities. It offers a means of dealing with educational issues difficult to handle in other ways and of restoring and enhancing some of the social dimensions of learning frequently lost in universities of today.
The main focus of the paper is to explore the notion of peer learning and to discuss why it is important to formalise aspects of it now. It concludes with a brief outline of approaches which might be considered and issues which need to be taken into account in use-these will be elaborated in later papers. Our colleagues with whom we share a CAUT grant, Ruth Cohen and Jane Sampson, have contributed extensively to the ideas presented here.

What is meant by peer learning?

Peer learning is not a single, undifferentiated educational approach: it encompasses a diverse range of activities. For example, work undertaken at the University of Ulster identified ten different models of peer learning (Griffiths et al, 1995: 8-11). These ranged from the traditional proctor model in which senior students tutor junior students to learning cells whereby same-year students form partnerships to assist each other with both course content and personal concerns. Other types involve discussion seminars, private study groups, peer counselling, peer assessment schemes, collaborative project or laboratory work, projects in different size (cascading) groups, workplace mentoring, and community work with others.

Peer learning is a two-way, reciprocal learning experience. It involves mutual benefits and a sharing of knowledge, ideas and experience among participants. It is a way of moving beyond independent to interdependent learning. This idea of interdependence is important since the alternative is a more instrumental peer teaching approach which often involves some form of credit or payment for the person acting in a teaching capacity thus losing a sense of mutuality. While peer teaching is a well-established practice in many universities, reciprocal peer learning is usually regarded as incidental to other, more familiar, strategies such as the discussion group. Consequently there has been little attempt made to separate reciprocal peer learning as a practice in its own right and to consider how it might best be promoted or what variations may be possible.

Peer learning involves students learning from and with each other in both formal and informal ways. The emphasis is on the learning process, including emotional support learners offer to each other, as much as the learning task. The roles of teacher and learner may either not be defined or may shift during the course of the learning experience, unlike peer teaching in which roles are fixed. Staff may be actively involved as group facilitators or may simply initiate a mainly student-directed activity such as a workshop or learning partnership.

According to Topping's recent review of the literature surprisingly little research has been done into either dyadic reciprocal peer tutoring or same-year group tutoring (Topping, in press). He identifies only ten studies to date, all with a very narrow focus. This suggests that a teaching model rather than a learning model is still the most common view of how students assist each other. While this teaching approach has value, unless we also consider the learning process itself we are unlikely to make the best use of peers as resources for learning.

Why is peer learning significant now?

The current demand on universities to improve teaching quality at a time when resources are already stretched (the "doing more with less" syndrome) has meant cost-effective methods must be found. Peer learning can be very cost-effective (as the more cynical of our students are quick to suggest) since it frees staff to do other things. Yet as Topping points out it would be unwise to seize upon peer learning as some sort of instant and universal panacea. Peer learning, like any other educational method, can be both used and abused.

But it is not simply economics which has led teachers to think about more learner-centred ways of presenting their courses. Interest in peer learning in particular has been increasing in recent years for a number of reasons. At least three major factors suggest that approaches such as peer learning will become even more important in future.

1. The changed nature of the higher education social context

Changes already occurring in secondary education will influence the expectations of students entering universities. Rather than seeing themselves as recipients of content knowledge these students will expect to be more directly and actively involved. They will have been exposed to experience-based learning and individualised project work; and they will be used to working cooperatively with others. They will be more sceptical of 'experts' and out-dated ideas-the world wide web has guaranteed that. As well as facing more critical and confident school leavers, we will be dealing increasingly with older students who have many demands on their time-work, family, homelife, community activities, etc. Students are also likely to come from more diverse ethnic, social and cultural backgrounds. For many such learners, peer support is vital.

Hence assumptions about the preparation of students and the best design of courses for them will become more difficult to make. We can only safely assume a more diverse student population than in the past. Moreover, trends such as larger class sizes, the modularisation of courses and flexible attendance patterns mean the idea of a student cohort is meaningless. Judicious use of formal peer learning methods offers a way of restoring personal contact and allowing each person to be valued.

2. Learning as a social process

We learn from and with others and often learn best when we are required to explain things to others. From a pedagogical point of view peer learning is active learning and active learning demands involvement. Peer learning provides for immediate responses and immediate feedback. The learner is involved in shaping both the learning environment and the content of the learning (Goldschmid & Goldschmid, 1976). This in turn contributes greatly to learner interest and motivation. Learning is also socially and culturally constructed and will be influenced by the socio-emotional context in which it occurs. Involving others in reflecting upon and making sense of experience is a powerful stimulus to learning.

Within the sometimes alienating milieu of a university peer learning activities can provide support for new students of whatever age or background. Peer learning can be used as a socialisation and enculturation process, one reason perhaps for its long history in the older universities of Britain. At the same time it is the very notion of power parity (at least power by virtue of a person's position) that makes peer learning less threatening, and hence less stressful, for many. This in turn can lead to an openness more conducive to many kinds of learning.

3. Broader personal and social goals

The acquisition of knowledge and skill alone is no longer an adequate goal for a student today. At a time when technical knowledge is rapidly changing mastery of content is not sufficient. Lifelong learning is a major theme in current discussions about the purposes of higher education and learning how to learn is as essential now for students as assimilating new information (Candy, Crebert & O'Leary, 1994).

Throughout the world a range of terms are appearing in connection with talk about the goals of higher education: 'capability', 'key competencies', 'enterprise' and 'personal transferable skills'. Beneath such terms lies the idea that what is required for successful involvement in modern life are qualities and attributes that extend beyond the acquisition of knowledge. The ability to work in groups and teams and communicate effectively with others is seen as essential and it is sought by employers. Students unable to work successfully in teams may well find themselves unemployable in the work organisations of the future.

Why manage peer learning?

While peer learning has always been a key feature of student life, there are many reasons why informal approaches are starting to break down or tend to be undervalued. The first is the changing student profile mentioned earlier. In addition, formal meetings outside classes also favour friendship groupings and some students simply do not have the time or opportunity for successful relationships to develop. Such students, who may include those already disadvantaged, are therefore excluded from informal peer learning. Those most in need of peer support mechanisms may therefore have least access to them.

There is also a lack of acknowledgment of the skills which peer learning develops. These include skills in interpersonal communications, team work, project management and more general research and study skills. Students may also refuse to concede they can actually learn worthwhile things from other students. Only through formally acknowledging peer learning within the curriculum can appropriate recognition for the process and the outcomes be achieved (Saunders, 1992: 217).

Finally, the competitive nature of many courses and the scramble for jobs after graduation may make the idea of freely sharing one's knowledge with others seem unattractive at first. Having being introduced to the reciprocal benefits of peer learning through planned course activities students may realise they have much to gain.

The need then is to provide opportunities for peer learning to occur by building relevant activities into the course itself. This means more than just planning for small group discussions to fill the gaps between lectures. By managing peer learning we are formalising what would be a highly unpredictable and selective process if left to casual conversation outside the classroom.

At this point a note of caution should be introduced. Peer learning strategies which stress only small group work or other classroom based practices could fail for the very reason that they are classroom based. As Kail (1983) points out, if students work together only during class, at the end of the semester, when the class has disbanded, there will be no further opportunity to continue to develop the group relationship. We should instead be looking at establishing a tradition of mutual help that continues over time and outside the classroom. This obviously requires an institutional culture able to nurture and sustain such a tradition. Peer learning cannot be effectively promoted in isolation from other parts of the learner's life or without regard to what is happening elsewhere in the course.

Another issue is that a highly managed approach is unlikely to be successful. The process needs to draw upon the best features of informal learning without being overly prescriptive or intrusive. Much of the value for learners will come from exploration and the sense of discovery which is easily lost through pre-determined methods. The key to peer learning lies in the mutually supportive climate which the learners themselves construct and in which they feel free to express opinions, test ideas and request and offer help as needed (Smith, 1983: 91). Providing a structure within which this can occur is the challenge for teachers and course designers.

Types of peer learning activities

In our own work we are exploring a range of different reciprocal peer learning activities to suit different course contexts and to foster different learning outcomes. Ones which have proved useful in our context include:

Student-led workshops in which the students themselves are responsible for designing and conducting a workshop for their colleagues, thus learning about working as a member of a team as well as researching the content for the workshop.
'Learning exchanges' or formal class presentations in which students learn about a topic directly from their peers whilst also learning from the experience of delivering their own presentations and receiving critical feedback.
Seminar presentations in small groups or pairs following a completed shared project or assignment.
Work-in-progress reports by individuals or groups working together on a project or assignment, followed by questions and discussion.
Debriefing sessions following a field placement, industrial visit or work experience program. These can occur in pairs, small groups and finally plenary sessions.
Peer feedback, whereby peers comment on each other's assignments according to agreed criteria and the results discussed.
Study groups, with or without staff facilitation, which meet inside or outside class on a regular basis either for specific tasks or as a learning support network.
Learning partnerships between two students provide a means of encouraging a more collaborative approach to learning while offering personal support outside the classroom.

Peer learning activities necessarily change their character when formalised so care needs to be taken in extrapolating experience from informal to formal settings - other agendas may be brought into play. It is therefore important to monitor any peer learning activity and be guided by the wishes of the participants if the process seems to be faltering. Clear initial directions and ongoing support and encouragement may be necessary if the activity is to be successful. Some form of final closure is also necessary, reflecting upon learning from the experience and obtaining feedback to guide future peer work.

Considerations in using peer learning

One of the key issues we are examining is what should staff take into account when considering the adoption of formal peer learning approaches. These include the dynamics present in any interpersonal situation. For example:

differences in knowledge and experience bases;
potential for power differentials;
gendered activities;
potential for oppressive behaviour by dominant group members;
tensions between task and process;
cultural norms, values and expectations in any given setting;
group dynamics, eg the stages of the group's development.

In addition there are factors which will vary greatly depending on the type of peer learning activity being undertaken: These include:

levels of formality and informality;
emphasis on individual or group learning;
learning goals of individuals and the agendas set by others.

We also need to consider where peer learning fits into the scheme of teaching and learning within a particular course. It should not be seen simply as a reaction to traditional teaching or a substitute for staff teaching. Nor is there any suggestion that all learning should occur this way or that the method will work in all contexts for all students. A lot will depend upon the conception of teaching and learning which is held. For these reasons peer learning could be located among a number of qualitatively different conceptions:

in the repertoire of teaching methods;
part of a range of learning strategies;
an informal activity which could be formalised;
a strategy to remedy specific problems;
the central organising feature of learning;
part of a holistic conception of teaching and learning.

Certain conditions are necessary for effective peer learning, for instance:

there is perceived value in cooperation and the roles involved;
there is a microclimate of trust which already exists or can be established;
there is a minimally agreed process and some initial preparation;
reflection and reflective discussions are accepted and encouraged;
it is acceptable to make mistakes and seek assistance;
any previous negative experiences with similar activities are dealt with.

Other issues will also need to be addressed, such as:

how to introduce students to the notion of learning from each other;
how to build upon experiences to move the group forwards;
how to convince students that different perspectives may be equally valid;
how to encourage sharing in competitive courses.

The agenda for research and development is an extensive one. In our CAUT project we are currently identifying what students regard as good practice in formalising peer learning and developing guides to promote these practices.

Conclusion

Research over many years in several countries has demonstrated the value of peer learning (see Topping, in press; Sampson, in press). Students do benefit through participating in activities in which they learn from and with their peers and freely acknowledge this in course evaluations. Unfortunately the concept of peer learning is too often associated with students acting as surrogate teachers or cramming syndicates and as a result much of its potential is lost.

Through identifying the characteristics of successful peer learning encounters we may be able to formally incorporate relevant activities into courses. The challenge which we face is to build on the best of informal learning without allowing the process of formalisation to destroy the most important aspects.

References

Candy, P., Crebert, G. & O'Leary, J. (1994). Developing Lifelong Learners Through Undergraduate Education. NBEET, Commissioned Report No 28. Canberra: AGPS.

Griffiths, S., Houston, K. & Lazenbatt, A. (1995). Enhancing Student Learning Through Peer Tutoring in Higher Education. Coleraine: Educational Development Unit, University of Ulster.

Goldschmid, B. & Goldschmid, M. L. (1976). Peer teaching in higher education: A review. Higher Education, 5, 9-33.

Kail, H. (1983). Collaborative learning in context: The problem with peer tutoring. College English, 45, 6, 594-599.

Knowles, M. S. (1975). Self-Directed Learning: A Guide for Learners and Teachers. New York: Association Press.

Saunders, D. (1992). Peer tutoring in higher education. Studies in Higher Education, 17(2), 211-218.

Smith, R. M. (1983). Learning How to Learn. Milton Keynes: Open University Press.

Topping, K. J. (in press). The effectiveness of peer tutoring in further and higher education: A typology and review of the literature. Higher Education.

Sampson, J. (1996). Sharing experience-learning from and with each other. Paper to be presented at the Fifth International Conference on Experiential Learning, University of Cape Town, July 1996.

Please cite as: Anderson, G. and Boud, D. (1996). Extending the role of peer learning in university courses. Different Approaches: Theory and Practice in Higher Education. Proceedings HERDSA Conference 1996. Perth, Western Australia, 8-12 July. http://www.herdsa.org.au/confs/1996/anderson.html

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